Glossary of accountability and public-record terms

Plain-language definitions of legal, anti-corruption, records and journalism terms used in accountability reporting on India, Pakistan and Bangladesh.

Reporting on accountability in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh uses many legal and administrative terms that are rarely explained. This glossary sets out what they mean in plain language, with country-specific usage noted where it differs. Terms are grouped by subject. For how we apply the claim-status labels, see how to read a public-record investigation.

Claim status

Allegation

A claim made by a person, document or organisation that has not been tested by a court or official body. We name who makes the allegation and do not present it as fact.

Investigation open

An official body, such as the police, an anti-corruption agency or a military court of inquiry, has started looking into a matter. An investigation is not a finding of wrongdoing.

Charges filed

A prosecutor, police force or authority has formally accused someone before a court. The person remains presumed innocent until a court decides otherwise.

Court finding

A court or tribunal has ruled on the matter after hearing the case. Most findings can be appealed, so we also note whether an appeal is possible or under way.

Appeal pending

A ruling has been challenged in a higher court and the appeal has not been decided. We report the original ruling and the appeal together.

Acquitted or closed

The person was acquitted, the charges were withdrawn or the case was closed. We report this prominently and update earlier coverage.

Courts and criminal process

FIR (First Information Report)

The written record a police station makes when it receives information about a cognisable offence. It starts the criminal process in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. In India the rules now sit in the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita 2023, which replaced the Code of Criminal Procedure from 1 July 2024.

Cognisable offence

An offence for which the police can register a case and arrest without a warrant from a magistrate. Non-cognisable offences generally need a magistrate's permission before the police investigate.

Chargesheet / challan

The police report filed in court at the end of an investigation, setting out the evidence and the accused. It is usually called a chargesheet in India and Bangladesh and a challan in Pakistan. If police find insufficient evidence they may file a final or cancellation report instead.

Bail

Release of an accused person from custody while the case continues, often with conditions or a surety. Bail is not a finding of innocence, and refusal of bail is not a finding of guilt.

Pre-arrest bail

Bail granted before an expected arrest. It is called anticipatory bail in India and Bangladesh, and pre-arrest or protective bail in Pakistan.

Remand

A court order allowing police or an investigating agency to keep a suspect in custody for questioning (physical remand), or ordering the suspect held in prison while the case proceeds (judicial remand or judicial custody).

Discharge

A court decision, before trial begins, that there is not enough material to frame charges against a person. It differs from an acquittal, which follows a trial.

Acquittal

A court's decision at the end of a trial that the prosecution has not proved the charge. The prosecution or complainant may still be able to appeal.

Conviction

A court's finding that an accused person is guilty. A conviction can be suspended or overturned on appeal, so we check its current status.

Writ or constitutional petition

A petition to a High Court or the Supreme Court asking it to enforce fundamental rights or review the legality of official action. In Pakistan these are commonly called constitutional petitions.

Suo motu

Latin for “on its own motion”. A court that takes up a matter without a formal petition, often after media reports. Pakistan's Supreme Court and India's higher courts have used this power in public-interest matters.

Court martial

A military court that tries members of the armed forces under military law. Its proceedings and records are often less accessible than those of civilian courts.

Court of inquiry

A fact-finding body set up within the armed forces or another service to examine an incident. Its findings are usually internal and are not a criminal verdict.

Investigation and anti-corruption bodies

NAB (National Accountability Bureau)

Pakistan's federal anti-corruption agency, established under the National Accountability Ordinance 1999. Its powers have been amended several times, so check the current law.

NAB reference

The formal case NAB files in an accountability court, a special court that hears cases under the National Accountability Ordinance, after an investigation. A reference is a charge, not a conviction.

Plea bargain (NAB law)

An arrangement under Pakistan's National Accountability Ordinance in which an accused person offers to return money, subject to approval by the accountability court. It is treated as a conviction for legal purposes and can lead to disqualification from public office, so it is not the same as being cleared.

Anti-Corruption Commission (ACC)

Bangladesh's statutory anti-corruption body, created under the Anti-Corruption Commission Act 2004. It investigates and prosecutes corruption offences.

Anti-Corruption Establishment

Provincial anti-corruption agencies in Pakistan that handle complaints against provincial public servants.

FIA (Federal Investigation Agency)

Pakistan's federal investigation agency, which handles a range of crimes including some corruption, financial and cyber offences.

CBI (Central Bureau of Investigation)

India's main federal investigating agency for corruption and serious crime involving central government bodies. It generally needs consent to work in a state's territory, unless a court directs it.

CVC (Central Vigilance Commission)

India's apex body for overseeing vigilance and anti-corruption work in central government departments and public sector bodies.

Lokpal and Lokayukta

Anti-corruption ombudsman bodies in India. The Lokpal covers central public servants under the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act 2013, and Lokayuktas operate at state level under state laws.

Enforcement Directorate (ED)

The Indian agency that enforces laws on money laundering and foreign exchange, including the Prevention of Money Laundering Act 2002.

Inquiry and investigation

An inquiry is often a preliminary check to see whether there is a case to answer; an investigation is the fuller process that may lead to charges. Agencies use these terms differently, so we report the stage the agency itself names.

Records and transparency

RTI (right to information)

A legal right to request information held by public bodies. India has the Right to Information Act 2005, Pakistan the Right of Access to Information Act 2017 for federal bodies plus provincial laws, and Bangladesh the Right to Information Act 2009.

PIO (Public Information Officer)

The official in an Indian public authority who receives and answers RTI applications.

Designated officer or official

The official who handles information requests in Bangladesh (designated officer) and under Pakistan's federal law (designated official).

Information commission

An independent body that hears appeals or complaints when information requests are refused or ignored. India has central and state commissions, Pakistan federal and provincial ones, and Bangladesh a national Information Commission.

First appeal

An appeal to a more senior officer within the same public body after an information request is refused, ignored or answered inadequately. It usually comes before any complaint to an information commission.

Exemption

A ground in an information law that allows a public body to withhold information, for example national security, defence or personal privacy. A refusal must normally cite the exemption relied on.

Proactive disclosure

Information a public body must publish without being asked, such as its functions, budgets and officers. In India this is set out in section 4 of the RTI Act.

Gazette notification

An official announcement published in the government gazette, such as an appointment, transfer, promotion or new rule. It is often the authoritative record of when something took effect.

Cause list

A court's published list of cases to be heard on a given day. It helps confirm whether a case or appeal is still pending.

Money and procurement

Supreme audit institution

The national public auditor: the Comptroller and Auditor General of India, the Auditor-General of Pakistan and the Comptroller and Auditor General of Bangladesh. Their reports are laid before the legislature.

Audit para

A paragraph in an audit report recording a specific objection, such as missing records, overpayment or rule breaches. An audit para is an observation that the department can answer; it is not proof of theft.

PAC (Public Accounts Committee)

A parliamentary or assembly committee that examines audit reports and questions officials about them. India, Pakistan and Bangladesh all have one at national level, and provinces or states have their own.

DAC (Departmental Accounts Committee)

In Pakistan, a committee within a ministry or department, chaired by its principal accounting officer, that reviews audit paras before they reach the PAC. Paras can be settled at this stage if the department produces evidence.

e-GP (electronic government procurement)

Online systems for publishing tenders and receiving bids. Bangladesh's system is called e-GP; Pakistan's federal system is e-PADS; India uses central and state e-procurement portals and the Government e-Marketplace.

Tender

A public invitation for suppliers to bid for a contract. The notice, bid evaluation and award are separate records worth checking against each other.

Direct contracting

Awarding a contract without open competition, sometimes called single-source or limited tender. It can be lawful in defined circumstances, so we check which exception was cited.

Variation order

A change to a contract after it has been awarded, often increasing cost or scope. Repeated variations can be a sign of poor planning or of a tender being under-priced to win.

Beneficial owner

The real person who ultimately owns or controls a company, as opposed to nominees or holding companies named on paper. Registries in the region collect some of this information, but public access is limited.

Assets beyond known means

Wealth that appears larger than a public servant's lawful income can explain. In India this is usually called disproportionate assets. The person may have a lawful explanation, which must be tested.

Money laundering

Disguising the origin of money obtained through crime so that it appears legitimate. All three countries have specific laws and financial intelligence units dealing with it.

Journalism and verification

Right of response

The practice of putting specific claims to a person or institution before publication and fairly reporting their reply. See our right of response policy.

On the record

Information a source agrees can be published and attributed to them by name.

Off the record

Information shared on the understanding that it will not be published or attributed. Journalists and sources should agree the terms before the conversation, not afterwards.

On background

Information that may be used but attributed only in general terms, such as “a senior official”, without naming the source.

Embargo

An agreement not to publish information until a set date and time, common with official reports and press releases.

Primary source

The original record or first-hand account, such as a judgment, audit report or contract, as opposed to someone else's description of it.

Metadata

Hidden data inside files, such as author names, device details, dates and locations. It can identify a source, so it should be removed before sharing. See removing metadata.

Chain of custody

A record of who held a document or file and when, from the moment it was obtained. It helps show that evidence has not been altered.

Public interest

The test of whether publishing information serves the public, for example by exposing wrongdoing or protecting health and safety. It is not the same as what the public finds interesting.

Defamation

Publishing a false statement that damages someone's reputation. It is a civil wrong and, in all three countries, can also be a criminal offence, which is one reason careful verification matters.

This glossary is general information, not legal advice.

Frequently asked questions

Sources

• sbp.org.pk/l_frame/nab_ord_1999.pdf
• dailytimes.com.pk/563837/plea-bargain-is-deemed-conviction-nab/
• livelaw.in/amp/high-court/karnataka-high-court/karnataka-high-court-ruling-regis
• rti.gov.pk/
• agp.gov.pk/
• bppa.gov.bd/about-cptu/central-procurement-technical-unit.html
• ppra.org.pk/epads/home.asp
• thedailystar.net/law-our-rights/news/how-seek-information-under-the-right-information-